References¶

Everything the atlas cites: standards, the data and how it was recorded, the literature behind each model, and the software the work was done with. Each entry lists the pages that cite it.

Metrology¶

Carroll RJ, Ruppert D, Stefanski LA, Crainiceanu CM. Measurement Error in Nonlinear Models. A Modern Perspective. 2nd ed. Boca Raton; Chapman and Hall/CRC; 2006. doi:10.1201/9781420010138

Cole SR, Chu H, Greenland S. Multiple-imputation for measurement-error correction. Int J Epidemiol. 2006;35(4):1074-1081. doi:10.1093/ije/dyl097

JCGM 100:2008. Evaluation of measurement data – Guide to the expression of uncertainty in measurement (GUM). Joint Committee for Guides in Metrology; 2008. doi:10.59161/JCGM100-2008E www.bipm.org/en/publications/guides/gum.html

JCGM 101:2008. Evaluation of measurement data – Supplement 1 to the 'Guide to the expression of uncertainty in measurement' – Propagation of distributions using a Monte Carlo method. Joint Committee for Guides in Metrology; 2008. doi:10.59161/JCGM101-2008

JCGM 102:2011. Evaluation of measurement data – Supplement 2 to the 'Guide to the expression of uncertainty in measurement' – Extension to any number of output quantities. Joint Committee for Guides in Metrology; 2011. doi:10.59161/JCGM102-2011

JCGM 200:2012. International vocabulary of metrology – Basic and general concepts and associated terms (VIM). Joint Committee for Guides in Metrology; 2012. doi:10.59161/JCGM200-2012 jcgm.bipm.org/vim/en

JCGM GUM-6:2020. Guide to the expression of uncertainty in measurement – Part 6: Developing and using measurement models. Joint Committee for Guides in Metrology; 2020. doi:10.59161/JCGMGUM-6-2020

Rubin DB. Multiple Imputation for Nonresponse in Surveys. New York; Wiley; 1987. doi:10.1002/9780470316696

Data and recording¶

Goldberger AL, Amaral LAN, Glass L, Hausdorff JM, Ivanov PCh, Mark RG, Mietus JE, Moody GB, Peng C-K, Stanley HE. PhysioBank, PhysioToolkit, and PhysioNet: components of a new research resource for complex physiologic signals. Circulation. 2000;101(23):e215-e220. doi:10.1161/01.CIR.101.23.e215

Kidney Disease Improving Global Outcomes (KDIGO) Acute Kidney Injury Work Group. KDIGO clinical practice guideline for acute kidney injury. Kidney Int Suppl. 2012;2(1):1-138. doi:10.1038/kisup.2012.1

Lee H-C, Jung C-W. Vital Recorder – a free research tool for automatic recording of high-resolution time-synchronised physiological data from multiple anaesthesia devices. Sci Rep. 2018;8:1527. doi:10.1038/s41598-018-20062-4
Cited by: Vital Recorder

Lee H-C, Jung C-W. VitalDB, a high-fidelity multi-parameter vital signs database in surgical patients (version 1.0.0). PhysioNet. 2022. doi:10.13026/czw8-9p62 physionet.org/content/vitaldb/1.0.0/
The release this atlas describes.
Cited by: home page

Lee H-C, Park Y, Yoon SB, Yang SM, Park D, Jung C-W. VitalDB, a high-fidelity multi-parameter vital signs database in surgical patients. Sci Data. 2022;9:279. doi:10.1038/s41597-022-01411-5
Cited by: Recorder PC clock, SNUADC, Vital Recorder, home page

Pollard T, Moody BE, Lehman L, Gow B, Fernandes C, Xie C, Johnson A, Mark RG, Heldt T. PhysioNet as a global platform for biomedical research. Nature Health. 2026. doi:10.1038/s44360-026-00096-z
The standard PhysioNet citation now given on the VitalDB page; volume and pages to be confirmed.
Cited by: home page

VitalDB. SNUADC: firmware and hardware of the VitalDB analogue-to-digital converter. GitHub. github.com/vitaldb/snuadc
Firmware firmware/SNUADC/SNUADC.ino, read October 2026.
Cited by: The SNUADC firmware

VitalDB. Vital file format specification (format version 3). VitalDB documentation. Accessed 19 October 2026. vitaldb.net/docs/?documentId=VitalRecorder%2FVital_File_Format.md
Cited by: Value resolution of every signal, Primus waveform gains are wrong in every recording, for CO₂ or for AWP

VitalDB. VitalRecorder configuration file (vr.conf) guide. VitalDB documentation. Accessed 19 October 2026. vitaldb.net/docs/?documentId=VitalRecorder%2FConfiguration_Guide.md
Current VitalRecorder (1.18.x); the release was recorded with earlier versions.
Cited by: Value resolution of every signal, SNUADC values are 10-bit codes, though the device is documented as 12-bit

VitalDB. VitalRecorder supported devices. VitalDB documentation. Accessed 19 October 2026. vitaldb.net/docs/?documentId=VitalRecorder%2FSupported_Devices.md
Current VitalRecorder (1.18.x); the release was recorded with earlier versions.
Cited by: Value resolution of every signal, SNUADC values are 10-bit codes, though the device is documented as 12-bit

VitalDB. VitalRecorder user manual. VitalDB documentation. Accessed 19 October 2026. vitaldb.net/docs/?documentId=VitalRecorder%2FUser_Manual.md
Current VitalRecorder (1.18.x); the release was recorded with earlier versions.

Timing and synchronisation¶

Mills D, Martin J, Burbank J, Kasch W. Network Time Protocol Version 4: Protocol and Algorithms Specification. RFC 5905. RFC Editor; 2010. doi:10.17487/RFC5905 www.rfc-editor.org/info/rfc5905
How a PC clock is usually kept on UTC; the recorder PCs' link to UTC is assumed, not observed.
Cited by: Recorder PC clock

Pilge S, Zanner R, Schneider G, Blum J, Kreuzer M, Kochs EF. Time delay of index calculation: analysis of cerebral state, bispectral, and narcotrend indices. Anesthesiology. 2006;104(3):488-494. doi:10.1097/00000542-200603000-00016
Cited by: How the BIS index trails its EEG

Rampil IJ. A primer for EEG signal processing in anesthesia. Anesthesiology. 1998;89(4):980-1002. doi:10.1097/00000542-199810000-00023
Cited by: How the BIS index trails its EEG

VitalDB. openeeg: open-source EEG processing for depth of anaesthesia (BIS-mimic algorithms validated against VitalDB). GitHub. github.com/vitaldb/openeeg
Commit bd476c5, 2 June 2026; read October 2026.
Cited by: What a BIS-mimic project says about the index's smoothing

Coarse data and heaping¶

Heitjan DF, Rubin DB. Ignorability and coarse data. Ann Stat. 1991;19(4):2244-2253. doi:10.1214/aos/1176348396
Cited by: Rounding, heaping and value resolution

Heitjan DF. Inference from grouped continuous data: a review. Stat Sci. 1989;4(2):164-179. doi:10.1214/ss/1177012601
Cited by: Rounding, heaping and value resolution

Rietveld P. Rounding of arrival and departure times in travel surveys: an interpretation in terms of scheduled activities. J Transp Stat. 2002;5(1):71-81. www.bts.gov/archive/publications/journal_of_transportation_and_statistics/volume_05_number_01/paper_05/index
Reported clock times heap on multiples of 5, 15, 30 and 60 minutes; rounding probabilities are fitted by maximum likelihood and Bayes' rule gives the distribution of the true time given the reported one. Also a Tinbergen Institute discussion paper (TI 01-110/3, 2001).
Cited by: Anaesthesia record times are rounded up, Clinical and laboratory times, Rounding, heaping and value resolution

Wang H, Heitjan DF. Modeling heaping in self-reported cigarette counts. Stat Med. 2008;27(19):3789-3804. doi:10.1002/sim.3281
Cited by: Rounding, heaping and value resolution

Anthropometry¶

Healey EL, Burden AM, McEwan IM, Fowler NE. Diurnal variation in stature: do those with chronic low-back pain differ from asymptomatic controls? Clin Biomech. 2011;26(4):331-336. doi:10.1016/j.clinbiomech.2010.11.017
Cited by: Rounding and heaping of height

Khosla T, Billewicz WZ. Measurement of change in body-weight. Br J Nutr. 1964;18(1):227-239. doi:10.1079/BJN19640022
Cited by: Rounding and heaping of weight

Leatt P, Reilly T, Troup JG. Spinal loading during circuit weight-training and running. Br J Sports Med. 1986;20(3):119-124. doi:10.1136/bjsm.20.3.119
Cited by: Rounding and heaping of height

Vivanti A, Yu L, Palmer M, Dakin L, Sun J, Campbell K. Short-term body weight fluctuations in older well-hydrated hospitalised patients. J Hum Nutr Diet. 2013;26(5):429-435. doi:10.1111/jhn.12034
Cited by: Rounding and heaping of weight

Voss LD, Bailey BJR. Diurnal variation in stature: is stretching the answer? Arch Dis Child. 1997;77(4):319-322. doi:10.1136/adc.77.4.319
Cited by: Rounding and heaping of height

Pulse arrival time¶

Allen J, Murray A. Age-related changes in peripheral pulse timing characteristics at the ears, fingers and toes. J Hum Hypertens. 2002;16(10):711-717. doi:10.1038/sj.jhh.1001478
Cited by: The PPG hardware delay and the adopted pulse arrival time

Allen J, Murray A. Variability of photoplethysmography peripheral pulse measurements at the ears, thumbs and toes. IEE Proc Sci Meas Technol. 2000;147(6):403-407. doi:10.1049/ip-smt:20000846
Cited by: The PPG hardware delay and the adopted pulse arrival time

Block RC, Yavarimanesh M, Natarajan K, et al. Conventional pulse transit times as markers of blood pressure changes in humans. Sci Rep. 2020;10:16373. doi:10.1038/s41598-020-73143-8
Cited by: The PPG hardware delay and the adopted pulse arrival time

Jose AS, Srivastav S, Mehta B. Exploring the repeatability of pulse arrival time in healthy subjects: a test-retest approach. Indian J Physiol Pharmacol. 2025;69(1):27-33. doi:10.25259/IJPP_149_2024
Cited by: The PPG hardware delay and the adopted pulse arrival time

Kortekaas MC, van Velzen MHN, Grüne F, Niehof SP, Stolker RJ, Huygen FJPM. Small intra-individual variability of the pre-ejection period justifies the use of pulse transit time as approximation of the vascular transit. PLoS ONE. 2018;13(10):e0204105. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0204105
Cited by: The PPG hardware delay and the adopted pulse arrival time

Lee J, Yang S, Lee S, Kim HC. Analysis of pulse arrival time as an indicator of blood pressure in a large surgical biosignal database: recommendations for developing ubiquitous blood pressure monitoring methods. J Clin Med. 2019;8(11):1773. doi:10.3390/jcm8111773
Cited by: The PPG hardware delay and the adopted pulse arrival time

Liao S, Liu H, Lin W-H, Zheng D, Chen F. Filtering-induced changes of pulse transmit time across different ages: a neglected concern in photoplethysmography-based cuffless blood pressure measurement. Front Physiol. 2023;14:1172150. doi:10.3389/fphys.2023.1172150
Cited by: The PPG hardware delay and the adopted pulse arrival time

Martin SL-O, Carek AM, Kim C-S, Ashouri H, Inan OT, Hahn J-O, Mukkamala R. Weighing scale-based pulse transit time is a superior marker of blood pressure than conventional pulse arrival time. Sci Rep. 2016;6:39273. doi:10.1038/srep39273
Cited by: The PPG hardware delay and the adopted pulse arrival time

Michard F, Boussat S, Chemla D, Anguel N, Mercat A, Lecarpentier Y, Richard C, Pinsky MR, Teboul JL. Relation between respiratory changes in arterial pulse pressure and fluid responsiveness in septic patients with acute circulatory failure. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2000;162(1):134-138. doi:10.1164/ajrccm.162.1.9903035

Mohammadpoor Faskhodi M, Garcia-Gonzalez MA, Fernandez-Chimeno M, et al. On the use of fractional calculus to improve the pulse arrival time (PAT) detection when using photoplethysmography (PPG) and electrocardiography (ECG) signals. PLoS ONE. 2024;19(2):e0298354. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0298354
Cited by: The PPG hardware delay and the adopted pulse arrival time

Obata Y, Ong QJ, Magruder JT, et al. Noninvasive assessment of the effect of position and exercise on pulse arrival to peripheral vascular beds in healthy volunteers. Front Physiol. 2017;8:47. doi:10.3389/fphys.2017.00047
Cited by: The PPG hardware delay and the adopted pulse arrival time

van Velzen MHN, Loeve AJ, Niehof SP, Mik EG. Increasing accuracy of pulse transit time measurements by automated elimination of distorted photoplethysmography waves. Med Biol Eng Comput. 2017;55(11):1989-2000. doi:10.1007/s11517-017-1642-x
Cited by: The PPG hardware delay and the adopted pulse arrival time

Youn AM, Shin YS, Park SI. Changes in pulse transit time according to target controlled infusion of propofol versus sevoflurane inhalation induction. Anesth Pain Med. 2014;9(1):48-53.
Cited for the change after induction only.
Cited by: The PPG hardware delay and the adopted pulse arrival time

The authors' earlier work¶

Eytan D, Mazwi ML, Goodwin AJ, Goodfellow SD, Assadi A, Greer RW, Jegatheeswaran A, Laussen PC. Revisiting oxygen dissociation curves and bedside measured arterial saturation in critically ill children. Intensive Care Med. 2019;45(12):1832-1834. doi:10.1007/s00134-019-05792-x
Pulse oximetry against arterial blood gas saturation at the bedside.
Cited by: End-tidal to arterial CO₂, and pulse oximetry against blood gas, at the right moment

Goodwin A, Mazwi ML, Somer J, Schwartz SM, McEwan A, Eytan D. Blood pressure in critically ill children: exploratory analyses of concurrent invasive and noninvasive measurements. Crit Care Explor. 2021;3(12):e0586.
Value accuracy of non-invasive against invasive blood pressure.
Cited by: Non-invasive blood pressure

Goodwin AJ, Dixon W, Mazwi M, Hahn CD, Meir T, Goodfellow SD, Kazazian V, Greer RW, McEwan A, Laussen PC, et al. The truth Hertz – synchronization of electroencephalogram signals with physiological waveforms recorded in an intensive care unit. Physiol Meas. 2023;44(8):085002.
Cited by: The cardiac artefact in the BIS EEG

Goodwin AJ, Eytan D, Dixon W, Goodfellow SD, Doherty Z, Greer RW, McEwan A, Tracy M, Laussen PC, Assadi A, et al. Timing errors and temporal uncertainty in clinical databases – a narrative review. Front Digit Health. 2022;4:932599.
Cited by: Clinical and laboratory times, Delays and averaging windows

Goodwin AJ, Eytan D, Greer RW, Mazwi M, Thommandram A, Goodfellow SD, Assadi A, Jegatheeswaran A, Laussen PC. A practical approach to storage and retrieval of high-frequency physiological signals. Physiol Meas. 2020;41(3):035008. doi:10.1088/1361-6579/ab7cb5
Earlier work on storing and retrieving high-frequency physiological signals.

Goodwin AJ. High frequency physiological data quality modelling in the intensive care unit [PhD thesis]. Sydney: School of Biomedical Engineering, The University of Sydney; 2023.

Ruffolo I, Siddiqui A, Nguyen B, Dixon W, Assadi A, Greer R, Schwartz S, Brudno M, Mariakakis A, Goodwin A. High-fidelity measurement of pulse arrival time in critically ill children using standard bedside monitoring equipment. Physiol Meas. 2025;46(11):115006.
Cited by: One device delay for the PLETH across the release, The PPG hardware delay and the adopted pulse arrival time, Every time is quantised, and fiducials inherit it, Pulse arrival time against blood pressure, before and after synchronisation, Pulse arrival time in two correction steps

Software¶

Apache Software Foundation. Apache Arrow (PyArrow). arrow.apache.org/
Cited by: vitaldb-bench

Bota P, Silva R, Carreiras C, Fred A, Plácido da Silva H. BioSPPy: a Python toolbox for physiological signal processing. SoftwareX. 2024;26:101712. doi:10.1016/j.softx.2024.101712
Cited by: vitaldb-bench

Bradbury J, Frostig R, Hawkins P, Johnson MJ, Katariya Y, Leary C, Maclaurin D, Necula G, Paszke A, VanderPlas J, Wanderman-Milne S, Zhang Q. JAX: composable transformations of Python+NumPy programs. 2018. github.com/jax-ml/jax
Used to fit the value models; cite with the version used.
Cited by: vitaldb-resolution

Harris CR, Millman KJ, van der Walt SJ, et al. Array programming with NumPy. Nature. 2020;585(7825):357-362. doi:10.1038/s41586-020-2649-2
Cited by: lineaccess, physiosync, vitaldb-bench, vitaldb-resolution

Hunter JD. Matplotlib: a 2D graphics environment. Comput Sci Eng. 2007;9(3):90-95. doi:10.1109/MCSE.2007.55
Cited by: vitaldb-bench

Kozea / CourtBouillon. CairoSVG. github.com/Kozea/CairoSVG
Cited by: vitaldb-bench

Krekel H, Oliveira B, Pfannschmidt R, Bruynooghe F, Laugher B, Bruhin F. pytest. 2004. github.com/pytest-dev/pytest
Cite with the major.minor version used.
Cited by: lineaccess, metrology-atlas, physiosync, vitaldb-bench, vitaldb-resolution

LaussenLabs. hrvmatch [source code]. GitHub. github.com/LaussenLabs/hrvmatch
Beat matching by inter-beat intervals; cite with the commit used.
Cited by: physiosync

Makowski D, Pham T, Lau ZJ, Brammer JC, Lespinasse F, Pham H, Schölzel C, Chen SHA. NeuroKit2: a Python toolbox for neurophysiological signal processing. Behav Res Methods. 2021;53(4):1689-1696. doi:10.3758/s13428-020-01516-y
Cited by: vitaldb-bench

Maritsch M, Stoffregen T, Kaar T, et al. TimeNet: an extensible unified data infrastructure for next-generation temporal foundation models. arXiv:2610.04407. 2026. github.com/OpenTSLM/TimeNet
Preprint details to be confirmed.
Cited by: TimeNet VitalDB reader

McKinney W. Data structures for statistical computing in Python. In: Proceedings of the 9th Python in Science Conference. 2010. p. 56-61. doi:10.25080/Majora-92bf1922-00a
Cited by: vitaldb-bench, vitaldb-resolution

Raasveldt M, Mühleisen H. DuckDB: an embeddable analytical database. In: Proceedings of the 2019 International Conference on Management of Data (SIGMOD '19). ACM; 2019. p. 1981-1984. doi:10.1145/3299869.3320212
Cited by: vitaldb-bench

Simonov K, et al. PyYAML. github.com/yaml/pyyaml
Cited by: metrology-atlas

The pandas development team. pandas-dev/pandas: Pandas. Zenodo. doi:10.5281/zenodo.3509134
Cite the record for the version used, with McKinney 2010.
Cited by: vitaldb-bench

Virtanen P, Gommers R, Oliphant TE, et al. SciPy 1.0: fundamental algorithms for scientific computing in Python. Nat Methods. 2020;17(3):261-272. doi:10.1038/s41592-019-0686-2
Cited by: physiosync, vitaldb-bench, vitaldb-resolution

VitalLab. vitaldb [Python package]. PyPI. pypi.org/project/vitaldb/
Version 1.7.2 was read for the loader study.
Cited by: The vitaldb package's loading conventions, vitaldb (Python package)

Zensical. Zensical: static site generator. zensical.org/
Cited by: metrology-atlas